Revelation through Experience in Heart of Darkness, Going...

Revelation through Experience in Heart of Darkness, Going After Cacciato, and The Things They Carried Foreign lands seemingly possessed by evil spirits as well as evil men, ammunition stockpiles, expendable extremities and splintered, non-expendable limbs carpeting the smoking husks of burnt-out villages, the intoxicating colors of burning napalm, and courage mixed with cowardice in the face of extreme peril. These are just a few examples of the spell-binding images presented in the novels read in the class entitled The Literature of War at Wabash College. These images and their accompanying stories do far more than fill the mind with fantastic ideas of war and heroism; they force the reader into uncomfortable situations†¦show more content†¦During battle and wartime, in the experience stage, all of the frivolous emotions and concerns are melted away as this newly realized proximity to death brings a new appreciation for life and the truly important things. The things that truly matter to a man may vary and some of them, such as love, fear, comfort, and compassion, are in tangible. And yet it is these intangible things and not direct orders from a commander that drive a man onward during war. Unfortunately, war not only reveals the innermost truths of a man’s character, it also destroys his capacity for leading a normal life upon his return home. Once a man has confronted his personal demons and come to some sort of understanding regarding his place in the universe and the inevitability of death, he has an extremely difficult time acclimating himself to civilian life once the war ends. Of all the novels read in War Literature, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and two Tim O’Brien novels: Going After Cacciato and The Things They Carried, best illustrate the inability of a soldier to deal with his original settings after returning from war. By studying the actions of Marlow, Paul Berlin, and Tim O’Brien (both the author and the character) after they leave the war, it is clear that they each use their own unique war expe riences to deal with

Elizabethan Clothes and Costumes - 703 Words

The people who lived during the Elizabethan Era were not allowed to wear whatever they like or desired. Their Fashion choices had to be followed by a strict law! The English people chose to establish social classes by the colors they wore and this had an affect on costumes used in theatre. Queen Elizabeth I followed the sumptuary laws, which was only certain classes were consent to wear specific fabric and colors. Therefore in plays the actors could only wear certain colors for their costumes that displayed what role and class their character was in. The clothes worn during this era was a result of Queen Elizabeth’s sumptuary laws, which had an affect on costumes used in plays, and each color a person wore had a significant meaning.†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Everyone who lived during the Elizabethan Era knew these laws and failure to follow them resulted in fines, lose of property, title, and life† (Elizabethan Costume). Since in English society clothing was a huge factor it ended up affecting costumes that were used in theatre. Next, actors had to abide by the sumptuary laws even while performing on stage. Therefore the second a performer walked onto the stage the audience could tell their role in the play just by looking at the color of the costume. â€Å"The Material and Fabric also had a similar effect,† the audience could tell what class the character was in by the quality of their costume and also it gave important information on that individual’s role (Elizabethan Actors). â€Å"Queen Elizabeth I had to give actors special licenses† to wear upper class clothes to fit their character or position (Globe Theatre Costume). When nobility or upper class people would come to see a play they would say it was like a double fashion show. The fabric and color of a person’s garments represented different pieces of information about them and since clothing was part of society and law everyone knew what the color or material meant. Lastly, each color, during this era, had a meaning and also represented which class a person was in. â€Å"Elizabethan clothing, material, and fabrics used in Elizabethan Era was extremely important† because clothes represented more than just how you looked it demonstrated yourShow MoreRelatedRenaissance Fashion Essay827 Words   |  4 Pagesrecognized for their clothing. Clothes determined someone’s status and reflected people’s social standing (Alchin, â€Å"Upper Class†). The upper class was known for their fabulous clothes, while the lower class was known for their simple homemade clothes. Since clothes were very important to the people of the Renaissance it became a status symbol during the Middle Ages (Camargo). Since clothes became a status symbol, the upper and lower classes were not allowed to wear the same clothes or clothing made of theRead MoreEssay Film Adaptation of William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet896 Words   |  4 Pageslove story into a contemporary modern world so audiences today can access and understand the universal themes of the play in a familiar environment. One way Baz Luhrmann modernises the original text by Shakespeare is by replacing Elizabethan swords with the modern day guns. At the gas station scene, Capulet men say: draw if you be men. Lord Capulet states: Hand me my long sword and Benvolio shouts: put down your swords for you know not what you do. The gunsRead MoreEssay about The Elizabethan Era674 Words   |  3 Pages The Elizabethan era lasted from 1550-1625, it was a time of great change in English culture. â€Å"For perhaps the first time in history, man viewed his recent past with contempt, dismissing the Middle Ages, somewhat unfairly, as a hopelessly backward period.† (Kemper 67). Queen Elizabeth I ruled from 1558-1602. Queen Elizabeth drastically changed the design of clothing. She created new sumptuary laws that stated who could wear what distinct colors and articles of clothing. The Elizabethan era wasRead MoreEssay on Clothes and Fashion of the Elizabethan Era1050 Words   |  5 PagesOf all aspects of Elizabethan culture, the most distinctive is probably the clothing and fashion. A lot of the clothing varied to whether they were a member of the nobility, upper class or the poor. But even if a women or man was wealthy or poor, they were not allowed to wear whatever they wanted. It was a highly fashioned age that prized a look that was artificial, elaborate, and striking. The style of clothing of the Elizabethan Era are easily recognizable today and popular with designers of historicRead MoreFashion During the Elizabethan Era Essay1243 Words   |  5 Pages Have you ever wondered what people in the Elizabethan Era wore? Fashion was just as important in those days as it is to some people today. What people were wearing mattered to others, and even the government. During the Elizabethan Era clothing, accessories, and cosmetics were all a part of daily life. During the Elizabethan Era, there were a set of rules controlling which classes could wear which clothing called the Sumptuary Laws. The Sumptuary Laws controlled the colors and types of clothingRead MoreThe Globe Theater, Home of Many of Shakespeares Plays Essay1026 Words   |  5 Pageshad brought before them. Shakespeare’s plays became enjoyable and fun to watch, seeing actors dress in amazing costumes and props used in The Globe Theater. (1-1) The Globe Theater Architecture based on the structures similar to The Coliseum in Ancient Rome. Architecture on a grand size would house a capacity between 1500 to 3000 people. Classic Greek and Romans admired by the Elizabethans and sometimes great columns included the architecture. The Globe Theater design reflected the elements of RomanRead MoreRomeo And Juliet Analysis780 Words   |  4 Pagesit relevant to new contexts helping the viewer understand the play. The directors who made a production of Romeo and Juliet recontextualise Romeo and Juliet from their point of view, therefore, Zeffirelli recontextualised Romeo and Juliet in the Elizabethan era. The Baz Luhrmann production Romeo + Juliet shows Romeo and Juliet in a more modern era recontextualising the play by using modern language, props, and a modern setting by doing so the audience can understand Romeo and Juliet better. MoreoverRead MoreRomeo And Juliet Movie Analysis848 Words   |  4 Pagesthe mere fact that they die d. The deaths are each meaningful, contributing to the moral whereas the special effects and explosive scenes are purely for money and not to address the meaning of Shakespeare’s work. By using modern costumes instead of Elizabethan style costumes the director ends up portraying the capulets and montagues as ignorant common criminals and gangsters instead of two powerful rival families. This is shown when Mercutio cross-dresses as a woman and comes already on ecstasy atRead MorePortrayal Of Women During The Elizabethan Period1656 Words   |  7 Pagesteaching and taking care of the children at home, cleaning the house, and cooking and having food ready for the husbands when they come home after work. As evidence of characterization of female characters in Macbeth by William Shakespeare, the Elizabethan period had a lack of respect for women, but Shakespeare changed it by having powerful, strong and independent female characters, like Lady Macbeth. Throughout history, women have not had the same amount of right and respect as the men. â€Å"WomenRead MoreRomeo And Juliet Movie Analysis852 Words   |  4 Pagesthe mere fact that they died. The deaths are each meaningful, contributing to the moral whereas the special effects and explosive scenes are purely for money and not to address the meaning of Shakespeare’s work. By using modern costumes instead of Elizabethan style costumes the director ends up portraying the Capulets and Montagues as ignorant common criminals and gangsters instead of two powerful rival families. This is shown when Mercutio cross-dresses as a woman and comes already under the influence

Medicaid s Plan And Affordable Care Act - 1380 Words

The Medicaid in first place was created as safety net. It was created by President Johnson to help with medical services and make wider services for people of all ages (LBJ, 2012). He promised people that it would improve healthcare for Americans. It was created as a program that helped people deal with their medical cost if their income and resources were limited. Unlike Medicare, this program was created to help with more long-term and personal care services (CMS, 2015). It was created to help people with more everyday kind of service, more detailed and more specific. Mainly was there in first place to help and support Americans with low-income, and later on lot more guidelines and changes began happening to Medicaid. Medicaid’s plan†¦show more content†¦In these services they would usually be offered help with activities of daily life, such as eating or bathing. Some home services also give them other benefits such as residential services, personal care or case management. To give more open details on experiences of Medicaid beneficiaries who need home and communities based services Musumeci and Reaves discuss nine seniors who are disabled and who live in different states. Those include people with different kind of disabilities which can be either developmental, physical or intellectual and issues such as autism, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis and their functional limitations that are there because they aged (Musumeci Reaves, 2014). Based on interview that were given from these people to the Kaiser Commission in 2013 based on Medicaid and uninsured, these peoples’ profiles clearly show us how beneficiaries funds, well-being, status of their employment are affected by the coverage of Medicaid and the role these services play in their daily lives (Musumeci Reaves, 2014). In the last years states are trying to work on rebalancing long-term care system by dedicating more spending to home and community care rather than institutional care. The reason is this being the efforts that are driven by beneficiaries who are

My Personal Values Of My Life - 1951 Words

I have many values of which have been acquired over the time of my life. Most of which are influenced by my mom and dad as they raised me. Of the values I value the most are kindness, being considerate of others, cherishing family and friends, and giving respect where it is due. As I have stated before, the source of these values are from being taught them as I grew up. They have been put into me from my mom, her mom, and my dad. As I grew up, my parents would teach me what to or not to usually do in certain situations and why they were that way and why I should do it as they said I should. Because of these lessons they taught me, of which I still use in life till today, I find myself to be a somewhat good person. An example of this is me being generally kind to just about everyone I meet, which also includes trying my best to be considerate of others. If I am playing music, I try my best to not have it too loud so it doesn’t bother other people, and to not get in the way of p eople incase if they are in a hurry for something important. Also, I like to be kind to people and try my very best to make people happy. I would probably say that is one of my bigger ones. I like to keep people happy, even though I may not always succeed, which ties in with my other goal of trying my very best at everything that I do. Hard work usually pays off very well, even if the reward is delayed. And another value, of which I usually don’t have to try too hard at, is being optimistic, and beingShow MoreRelatedMy Personal Values: Professional Ethics Are the Foundation of Social Work1798 Words   |  7 PagesA career in Social Work requires conviction to personal values that reflect and uphold the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Professional ethics are the foundation of social work, as the trade has an innate obligation to endorse ethical principles and basic values to advocate for the wellness of others. The core values adopted by all soci al workers, as distinguished by NASW, are service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationshipsRead MoreCultural Values Essay example1059 Words   |  5 PagesAbstract The purpose of this paper is to examine how personal, organizational, and cultural values affect decision making in my personal and professional life. My cultural, organizational and personal values represent my beliefs and traditions of my cultural environment. Through my research, I examined values and based them on how important they are within my personal, organizational, work, and cultural lifestyle. Based on the research, I came to the conclusion knowing the foundational elementsRead MoreEssay about The Effects of Values on Decision Making1022 Words   |  5 PagesThe Effects of Values on Decision Making The purpose of this paper is to examine how personal, organizational, and cultural values affect decision making in my personal and professional life. My cultural, organizational and personal values represent my beliefs and traditions of my cultural environment. Through my research, I examined values and based them on how important they are within my personal, organizational, work, and cultural lifestyle. Based on the research, I came to the conclusionRead MoreMy Personal Values Of An Organization That I m Working For Essay1581 Words   |  7 Pagestypes of values. For example: cultural, ethical, doctrinal, social, societal, and aesthetic – just to name few. We are all influenced by them on a personal level and also on an institutional level. In this paper, I will compare my personal values to the vision of an organization that I’m working for. Furthermore, I will explore how my personal values are compatible with values of my employer. Then I will look at how I am i mplementing those values at my workplace by looking at how my value â€Å"respectRead MoreCultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper1151 Words   |  5 PagesRunning head: CULTURAL VALUES AND PERSONAL ETHICS PAPER Cultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper University of Phoenix Cultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper [The introduction goes here. It should be one or two paragraphs explaining the findings of your paper. The introduction should prepare the reader for the contents of the paper by previewing the three main topics in your paper. Be sure to end with a transition word or sentence to lead into Section 1 of your paper. Triple clickRead MoreDefinition Of Effective Leadership And Leadership1487 Words   |  6 Pagesthose in positions of leadership. The Bible tells us that leaders are to lead with integrity and values that govern the heart. â€Å"So he shepherded them according to the integrity of his heart, and guided them with skillful hands.† (Psalm 78:72 NKJV) Unfortunately, that is not the practice of many in leadership, often leaders operate with a public set of values that differs from that of their private life. The definition of effective leadership has changed from character driven leadership to resultsRead MorePersonal Statement On Values And Morals927 Words   |  4 Page sValues and morals are an integral part of life; values define who we are on a personal and professional level. My personal and professional values are similar but are used differently on a personal and professional level. In this code of ethics I have identified my core values as respect, honesty, loyalty, integrity, professionalism, and responsibility. Developing a code of ethics has provided me with an opportunity to reflect on my values and evaluate how I turn those values into action. PersonalRead MoreMy Personal Statement : My Goals864 Words   |  4 PagesMy personal mission is to constantly strive to be the best overall person that I can be within my personal and professional life. My goals are to inspire and help others and myself around me to achieve greatness and balance that will to maximize our potential that will transcend the boundaries of our dreams. In addition to my mission statement, my core life values are the foundation of my mission statement, which allows me to uphold my promises and standards. These promises and standards will affordRead MoreRelationship Between Capita And College Graduation Rate1551 Words   |  7 Pagesrelationship between average life expectancy, per capita personal income, and college graduation rate by state in 2010. I intend to prove that average life expectancy by state, the dependent variable, will either positively or negatively correlate with income and college graduation rate, the independent variables. The null hypothesis (H0) for my independent variables is that there will be absolutely no relationship between income or college graduation rate and average life expectancy. On the other handRead MoreEssay on Gb570 Unit 1865 Words   |  4 PagesThe Value Chain in My Life Unit 1 Assignment Marylin Cortes Kaplan University GB570: Managing the Value Chain Professor: Jerry Haenisch Date: February 4, 2013 The Value Chain in my Life In order for a firm to create competitive advantage, it needs to create a set of activites that can deliver value to the specific product and services it offers to its customers. To start talking about my life as a â€Å"value chain†, I may need to compare it to a specific product†. This is going to take precedence

The Case About Rf and Tatarstan Delegation of Authorities Free Essays

THE CASE ABOUT RF AND TATARSTAN DELEGATION OF AUTHORITIES 1. Why Tatarstan was succeeded to be the â€Å"elected† region in terms of its’ authorities? As far as I could understand, the reasons why Tatarstan was chosen for delegation of Authorities and this Agreement are mostly historical. Historical and political preconditions of Tatarstan turned in such way, that Russian Federation and Tatarstan were nearly in equal position. We will write a custom essay sample on The Case About Rf and Tatarstan Delegation of Authorities or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example, Tatarstan was independent co-founder of USSR, Tatarstan Tatarstan did not participate in election of State Duma in December 1993, Tatarstan did not sign the Federative Agreement in 1992. This shows the level of independence of Tatarstan from Russian Federation. In my opinion, Tatarstan was not very powerful republic, thus, to keep on developing it needed an alliance. It had political independence, but in terms of resources and power it did not have much. Russia, on the other hand, wanted to avoid appearance of another country just in the very heart of it. To avoid repeat of Chechnya Case, Russian Authorities decided to change the way they behave about it. Instead of gaining power using military forces, Russian Federation took the way of diplomacy and political alliance. Thus, we can say that both sides needed this agreement, bith sides could benefit from it, but in my opinion, Tatarstan would need it more than Russia, in the case of different location. 2. Suggest some more or less objective criteria to select regions for establishing special favorable regime of relations with the federal center. This question in my point of view cannot have theoretical solution, because in any different case there would be new accomplishments and new terms, that would challenge the theory pretty much. But still, some tips could be defined. I think that in century of innovations and technological development, very important aspect would be potential rate of development of the region. It’s not important how much the region is developed, it’s much more vital – how can we develop it. In what way we can grow industry, or culture or trade or any other side of life of country. This criterion is very subjective, I understand this, but this is more an advantage than a disadvantage. Because government should realize itself, for what reason it needs the region, why it is necessary to develop favorable relations with this or that region, in what way it could be profitable. From history of Russian Empire we know examples of having totally useless for Empire regions (Poland) and caused a lot of trouble in tries to keep it quiet and not rebelling. 3. What is the author’s opinion on respect of whether special delegation of authorities between Tatarstan and RF is a good thing? Do you agree with him and why? On example of RF and Tatarstan Agreement we can see how idea of federal construction, integration and decentralization actually works. Author has very positive opinion about creating decentralized country and going on forward in development of this way. I do not have any real opinion about this, but if we look at 70 years of centralized country, and look at what do we have to suffer afterwards, I would say that decentralization is the right way to develop country federal structure, so that all the knowledge and all the experience is circulating among regions, and let develop the weak. How to cite The Case About Rf and Tatarstan Delegation of Authorities, Essay examples

Conformity Impacts as a Social Worker-Free-Sample for Students

Question: Describe what conformity is referring to how it is defined and the main theories that are involved and Critically analyse the idea of conformity, examining it from negative and positive perspective. Is there a relationship between them? Answer: Introduction Conformity is the kind of an act which is related to changing of the behavior just to match with the responses of others. A few hundred years ago, Deutsch Gerard, differentiated in between the two: informational and normal conformity. The first was based on the wish to form the exact interpretation of the reality and the behavior. And the second one was based on the goals to obtain approval socially from others(Cialdini Goldstein, 2004). Conformity is generally taken as a criticized feature of the human belief formation. It is also considered as the negative influence over reliability(James, 2008). This report focuses on the definition of the conformity and its theories that are related to it. Also the analysis of the idea of conformity is done. Conformity Definition and what it refers to Conformity is the act in which people will come up with the same behavior as others by changing attitudes and behaviors. It usually occurs in the small groups or in the society on the whole. It can either occur in front of others or individually too. The best example of this is people following social norms while watching TV or even when they are alone. It is generally associated with the young age people but it may occur in any ages of people(Bernheim Exley, 2015). The final explanation for it is social influence. People might conform according to others choices if they fear the society. Theories involved in Conformity Social Comparison Theory Social comparison is the habit for evaluating oneself and comparing to others. This is a significant source of behavior which is competitive. This theory states that the people who are driven by the basic drive upward, they improve their performance and at the same time they reduce discrepancies between them and other peoples level of performance. This act of reaching upward and to do better than the best generates the competitive behavior. This competitive behavior is one of the types of social comparison(Garcia et al., 2013). This is the theory was stated by Festinger in 1950. His theory said that the communication actually at first serves to reach the agreement in the groups and the pressure for uniformity of the conversation is just based on the two reasons: the locomotion of the group makes it important and necessary that all the members should hold the same opinion and all individuals feel the need to agree on the social reality as the world will always validate the righteousne ss of every individuals opinion. Hence, in this theory of social communication, Festinger focused on the significance of other people in formation of ones opinion. There is always reason for people to engage in social comparisons. It is basically based on the motivational comparisons. People mostly rely on the objective standards for such kind of evaluations. Objective standards are not available and they are always very hard to achieve as well. Sometimes, people do not seek feedback from other people but they always try and maintain positive image within society. Now, just if this needs to end, people will need to purposefully engage themselves in the comparisons with others(Corcoran, 2011). Social Influence Theory Social theory is the umbrella concept which consists of the work of multiple theories. These theories are used in the structuring the thoughts and knowledge of consumer behavior. The theory of social influence can be stated as the act of balancing in between the interest of self and others. The other definition could be that a person takes his decisions by himself or by going on what other say about taking the decision(Cascio et al., 2015). The motives were also found out in the theory as to why people feel this need. It was found out that there were multiple motives for agreeing and disagreeing with people. There have been studies done on the changing attitudes of people when they come in contact with other people. Common reasons due to which attitude changes could be motivated by the normative concerns are: Coherence ensuring and evaluation of the self. To ensure that satisfactory relations are the results To understand the issue in terms of influence. The researchers of social influence assumed that normative and informational motives are linked with different mechanisms which generate the attitude change. The wish for desiring the normative expectations results in informational analysis and transitory judgment change. The recent studies have shown that the analysis of persuasion by providing the evidence of normative motives which affect the influence with the common set of information mechanisms. Finally, the participants when motivated to defend their position, they selected the arguments which they could read to support their view; they generated thoughts which were supportive of the position and denoted polarized attitudes. Challenge for investigating in future will always be to continue developing models of social and cognitive processes which are inclusive for capturing the attitude change in variety to informational settings with in which it occurs(Wood, 2000). Positive and Negative conformity Conformity is an adaptive behavior of a certain way to conform to social pressure. It can be viewed in a positive way and sometimes in a negative way too. The positive side always allows people to feel as a part of a group when the people appear in a particular fashion or look and also the way they speak. This is known as normative influence. This influence occurs when people want to be liked by other people and hence, they conform. It can also be taken as a negative perspective when people bash what they would have accepted on their own ideas. Hence, conformity is based on the desire to be liked as well as it is also subjective. Another type of conformity is social influence which happens when people desire to always be correct. People who are in minority situations can make large use of conformity(Yu Sun, 2013). When the behavior or belief stands unanimous, most people who are in the minority are treated as if they have a huge amount of pressure on them to conform and accept the p articular type of lifestyle. Racial tensions are the same as this and this type of tension is also seen in the past. The unanimity is not that solid as it appears to be(Zafar, 2009). Hence, break in conformity is a good thing which proposes changes that are needed and it can be considered as a good thing to allow conformity. Though the positive and negative aspects are same in a way that conformity is occurring because of people want to be a part of the group yet other than this relation, there is no link between both positive and negative conformity. Conformity Impacts as a Social Worker People who work as a social care workers comes in contact with the people who are in pain or have lost courage in life to love it even further. They look for support to be up and running again. Sometimes, in order to receive support from people whom a social worker is helping, he will always feel the need to conform. People who are vulnerable would want a social worker to listen to their miseries and just support them in a positive manner. This way a social worker is being able to help other people. It takes a lot of time and planning before providing the help a social worker is preparing for(Allott Robb, 1998). Basically two things are required: ability for providing support to people and ability to identify the requirements that exists. Things will have to plan accordingly. Still, with no conformity sometimes, there is a lack of passion seen in a social worker by the people who are at the side of receiving the support. Hence, it can be taken as a positive approach. To build a foundation of a social working ground, a social worker needs people who are aptly knowledgeable about the area of work and have the skills to make the NGO grow and help more people. People, who want to become a part of the NGO, will sometimes agree to other people because they will think that those people are more knowledgeable and skilled. This might be a misconception or a misunderstanding(Blythe, 2010). This can become a negative approach too. Hence, informational conformity can be negative sometimes. Conclusion This report focuses on the definition of the conformity and its theories. Normative conformity can be proven to be positive and at the same time informational conformity can be proven negative sometimes. While both have a similarity in conformity, both these conformities have different motives behind agreeing in front of the other people. To conform to people in a general sense, just to feel a part of the group is considered to be positive but to conform in any other case will become a lifestyle and this can damage the true image of a personality. The personality which is different from other but the psychology to be liked by others forces people to conform to others(Suhay, 2016). The theories on both positive and negative conformity are discussed yet it is difficult to tell completely if conformity is completely good or bad References Allott, M. Robb, M., 1998. Understanding Health and Social Care: An Introductory Reader. SAGE. Bernheim, D.B. Exley, C.L., 2015. [Online] Available at: https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/16-070_1d8d5b51-93dd-4906-b811-4436813d55db.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Blythe, C., 2010. [Online] Available at: https://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/16186/1/__ddat01_staffhome_bjones_Downloads_46-130-1-PB.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Cascio, C.N., Scholz, C. Falk, E.B., 2015. [Online] Available at: https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1137context=neuroethics_pubs [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Cialdini, R.B. Goldstein, N.J., 2004. psych.ubc. [Online] Available at: https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/Psyc591Readings/CialdiniGoldstein2004.pdf [Accessed 12 February 2018]. Corcoran, K., 2011. soco.uni-koeln. [Online] Available at: https://soco.uni-koeln.de/docs/Corcoran_Crusius_Mussweiler_2011_Social_Comparison.pdf [Accessed 13 February 2018]. Garcia, S.M., Tor, A. Schiff, T.M., 2013. The Psychology of Competition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 20(10), pp.1 -17. James, K., 2008. kevinzollman. [Online] Available at: https://www.kevinzollman.com/uploads/5/0/3/6/50361245/zollman_-_social_structure_and_the_effects_of_conformity.pdf [Accessed 12 February 2018]. Suhay, E., 2016. [Online] Available at: https://www.democracy.uci.edu/newsevents/events/conference_files/suhay_2016_politicalconformity.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Wood, W., 2000. [Online] Available at: https://www3.psych.purdue.edu/~willia55/392F-'06/Wood-Influence.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Yu, R. Sun, S., 2013. suitable rewards to motivate the different generations. [Online] Available at: suitable rewards to motivate the different generations/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064530 [Accessed 19 February 2018]. Zafar, B., 2009. newyorkfed.org. [Online] Available at: https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/media/research/staff_reports/sr365.pdf [Accessed 19 February 2018].

What Causes Aggression free essay sample

What Causes Aggression? Is It an Instinct or a Learned Behaviour? BY Monkey73 What causes aggression? Is it an Instinct or a learned behaviour? (a) Compare and contrast the views of any two psychological domains on the causes of aggression. (b) Evaluate the validity of their claims in the order to reach an informed decision about the causes of aggression. In order to explore the causes of aggressive behaviour, we have to be clear about what we mean by aggressive behaviour. The psychological definitions of aggression are determined by theoretical perspectives and there is no consensus within or cross the sciences about its components. For example some researchers support that aggression is an inborn, instinctive process based on which we intend to harm others. Such approaches adopt a definition that places emphasis on the intention to harm others. So it views aggression as the intention to harm others and this is not dependent of whether actual harm is inflicted. Other theorists attribute aggression to being a learned behaviour and lay emphasis on observable behaviours that result in eliciting harm to another person. It highlights that the harm needs to be evident so it an be observed and does not view thoughts or unobservable emotions as being components of aggressive behaviour. Bandura in 1973 defined aggression as behaviour that results in personal injury or destruction of property (Hogg, M, Vaughan, G. 1998, p. 40) Anderson and Bushman 2002 postulate aggression is behaviour which causes intentional harm to another person (Glassman 2004, p. 337). Thus it seems current explanations of aggression fall into two board classes which focus on biological or social environment influences. The following essay is going to explore and contrast the distinct views of the biological and behaviourist domains on etermining aggression. It will walk through the core ideas which form the basis for each theory and illustrate the main differences on whether they view aggression as an instinct or as a learned behaviour. I will conclude by assessing the validity of each theory based on existing research. The biological domain views aggressive behaviour as being an innate part of human nature and we are programmed at birth to act in that way. It looks at the genetic, inborn characteristics of the person and not the situation as being the key determinants. Among the biological approaches, important contribution came from he field of ethology, which is concerned with the comparative study of animal and human behaviour. As one of the fields pioneers, Konrad Lorenz (1974) offered a model of aggression that dealt specifically with the issue of how aggressive energy is developed and set free in both humans and animals. His core assumption is that the organism continuously builds up aggressive energy and he likens this process to the operation of a reservoir filling up with water. Occasionally the reservoir needs to be emptied in a controlled fashion, otherwise it will overflow. Whether or not this energy ill lead to the manifestation of aggressive behaviour depends on two factors: (a) the (b) the strength of the external stimuli (e. g. the sight or smell of predator) capable of triggering an aggressive response. So this suggests the potential or instinct for aggression may be innate and the actual aggressive behaviour is elicited by specific stimuli in the environment know sign stimuli. Sign stimuli are environmental cues which regulate the expression of behaviours related to innate drives (Glassman 2004, p. 40) Some sign stimuli elicit the individual aggression, whereas other sign stimuli ay act as inhibitors. He also argues that aggression serves an evolunationary function, allowing the strongest and fittest members of a group to survive and re- produce, whereas eliminating the weaker members. If the aggression is not frequently released in controllable and manageable amounts, that are in accordance with environmental cues the risk is that it will build up and become unmanageable and randomly expressed. Also geneticists have offered theories on aggression by examining physiological processes. Their main focus has been to look at how the brain functions and how it can control aggression. The behaviourist approach view aggression as a learned behaviour and place significance on environmental influences rather then internal drives. They see aggression as a particular class of voluntary responses, which are acquired and modified by the means of reinforcement. This viewpoint emphasises the role of the situation rather than the person and individuals are seen as passive and as receptors of stimulation offered by the environment. The external world shapes learning by offering reinforcement and learning itself is seen as the outcome of associating certain behaviours with rewards or punishments. There are two main aspects of aggressive behaviour which have been supported by this approach: instrumental aggression and the role of frustration in aggression. Instrumental aggression is aggressive behaviour which is maintained because it is positively reinforced (Glassman 2004, p. 342). The primary goal of such aggression is not injury or harm to the victim; the aggression is simply a means to some other desired end. One such end could be self defence. Thus whenever the individual wishes to achieve the same environmental response, they demonstrate the same patterns of aggressive ehaviour. In contrast not all acts of aggression lead to reinforcement and in contrast the individual may be punished. The behaviourists Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mower and Sears in 1939 introduced the concept of frustration-aggression hypotheses. This incorporates the concept that aggression might actually be the automatic response of an individual that gets frustrated. Frustration can be defined as the blocking of a goal-orientated response and they viewed this to be the sole cause of aggression. They believed that whenever an individual tries to achieve a goal, environmental onditions block our activity and hence the individual experiences frustration and this can elicit aggressive behaviours. This concept represents the backbone of the approach as it indicates the environment affects the behaviour and the individual is seen as responding to external events. The aggressive energy need not explode directly against its source. Their theory suggests that people learn to inhibit direct retaliation, especially when others might disapprove or punish; instead we displace our hostilities to safer targets. Displacement occurs in the old anecdote about a man dog, which bites the postman. It is clear though, not every frustration leads to an aggressive response. Therefore the earlier proposition of a deterministic relationship between frustration and aggression was altered into a probabilistic version by Miller in 1941. Moderating variables may also explain why aggression is frequently displaced away from the frustrator onto more easily accessible or less intimidating target. Marcus-Newhall, Pederson, Carlson and Miller 2000 found consistent evidence for the displacement of aggression from the source of the frustration onto a less powerful or more accessible target across a total of 49 studies. Berkowitz 1978 suggests that aggression can be produced by reinforcement, even in the absence of frustration and so challenges the original hypothesis too. In comparing the two domains, biological theories place their significance on genetic, inborn characteristics which drive a persons behaviour and emotion. In contrast the behaviourists insist that aggression in humans is the product of environmental demands and is acquired through the customary laws of learning. They see aggression to be solely caused by a stimulus from the external world and it is a suggested response which is based upon reinforcement. On treating aggression, the behaviourists suggest the environment can be modified by ensuring the external world has an appropriate structure of reinforcement and punishment available. Hence this will inhibit people from learning aggression or the behaviour can be unlearned. Whereas Lorenz argues that nothing can alter to eliminate aggression all together but to provide suitable forms of cathersis such as sports to allow individuals to release the build up energy and prevent the random leakages. The validity of the biological domain comes under heavy criticism as it lacks empirical evidence. Lorenzs concept of aggression energy is not easily measurable and lacks an operational definition. Also the comparative study of animal behaviours does not prove that they have the same cause in humans. Also the method of catharsis has little experimental support too. Despite the lack of direct evidence, the ethnologists view does have some appeal on the aspect that humans do have an evolutionary genetic heritage and seeing aggression as innate fits in well with some cultural beliefs. Overall though the evidence for a biological basis for aggression has gaps and thus is viewed as being more suggestive than conclusive. In contrast, the behaviourist theory has more direct supporting evidence and several studies such as those conducted by Lovaas 1961, Loew 1967 indicate that hostile and helpful verbalizations can act as regulators of non verbal aggression, so proving the concept of learning. Although the notion of not all frustration leads to aggressive behaviour and not all people respond to frustration in the same way does prevent the theory from being applied across the board. Different individuals may employ different sorts of aggressive behaviour in response to a frustrating situation and so he theory does not account for the different reactions and modes of expressing frustration. Also researchers have found that aggression can be exhibited when there is no obvious environmental reinforcement and the displacement of aggression can not be easily predicted. In conclusion despite the above criticisms the behaviourist approach does offer more in the way of supporting evidence than the aggression and frustration-aggression hypothesis together can account for many cases of aggressive behaviour and there seems no question that frustration can elicit ggression in certain instances.